Glossary of terms used on this site
There are 39 entries in this glossary.All
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Access to information |
Access to information refers to the right of interested parties (the public, NGOs, the media, etc.) to receive information held by government. This right, protected by international and national laws, provides that official documents should be generally available, and that any exceptions should be limited and specific. Access to information increases government accountability to its citizens and reduces opportunities for corruption. |
| Accountability |
Accountability denotes a relationship between a bearer of a right or a legitimate claim and the agents or agencies responsible for fulfilling or respecting that right. One basic type of accountability relationship is that between a person or agency entrusted with a particular task or certain powers or resources, on the one hand, and the ‘principal’ on whose behalf the task is undertaken, on the other. A duty to be accountable can be discharged in different ways, but all accountability mechanisms operate according to three principles: “Transparency” requires that decisions and actions are taken openly and that sufficient information is available so that other agencies and the general public can assess whether the relevant procedures are followed, consonant with the given mandate; “Answerability” means an obligation on the part of the decision-makers to justify their decisions publicly so as to substantiate that they are reasonable, rational and within their mandate; “Controllability” refers to mechanisms in place to sanction actions and decisions that run counter to given mandates and procedures – often referred to as a system of checks and balances or enforcement mechanisms. The checks may take many forms, including shaming and praise. Impunity is the antonym of accountability and apportioning blame for harm done is an important component of accountability. Democratic accountability, therefore, refers to the idea that people entrusted with political power have a duty of accountability to their electorate - both directly through elections and indirectly through institutional controls. |
| Active and passive bribery |
Active bribery refers to the offence committed by the person who promises or gives the bribe; as contrasted to 'passive bribery', which is the offence committed by the official who receives the bribe. Active bribery occurs on the supply side, passive bribery on the demand side. In legal lingo (according to the Council of Europe's Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, for instance), active bribery of public officials is defined as the " the promising, offering or giving by any person, directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage ... for himself or herself or for anyone else, for him or her to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions". Similarly, passive bribery is "the request or receipt..., directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage, for himself or herself or for anyone else, or the acceptance of an offer or a promise of such an advantage, to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions". It is important to note that "active bribery" does not always mean that the briber has taken the initiative. In fact, often the reverse is true. The individual who receives the bribe often demanded it in the first place. In a sense, then, he or she is the more "active" party in the transaction. |
| Auditing |
Auditing refers to an official examination of an organisation or institution's accounts, to make sure money has been spent correctly, i.e. according to rules, regulations and norms. Audit institutions like national and regional Auditor Generals, Audit Offices, State Comptrollers, Ombudsmen, Tribunals de Cuentas, Cours de Comptes etc. make a vital contribution to good governance by detecting poor management and inappropriate use of public money. Auditing institutions can be considered the taxpayers' independent and professional watchdogs. |
| Bribery |
Bribery is the act of offering someone money, services or other valuables, in order to persuade him or her to do something in return. Bribery is corruption by definition. Bribes are also called kickbacks, baksheesh, payola, hush money, sweetener, protection money, boodle, gratuity etc. Bribery is widely criminalized through international and national laws. In particular, the bribing of foreign officials is outlawed by the OECD Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials. |
| Bureaucratic corruption |
Bureaucratic, administrative or "petty" corruption takes place at the implementation end of politics, where the public meets public officials. Bureaucratic corruption is usually distinguished from "grand" and political corruption (to the extent it is possible to distinguish administration from politics). |
| Checks and Balances |
Checks and balances usually refer to the institutional mechanisms for preventing power abuse. Often, they are constitutional controls whereby the three branches of government (executive, legislative and judiciary) and other state institutions have powers over each other so that no single branch will dominate. |
| Competitive bidding |
Competitive bidding is a selection process based on the principle of open and transparent advertisement of an item or service, which ensures that the best bidder wins according to qualifications, value and other objective criteria (and consequently not according to family or friendship ties, bribery or threats). Competitive bidding processes are often required by law on public contracts and purchases above a certain value. |
| Conflict of interest |
Conflict of interest arises when an individual with a formal responsibility to serve the public participates in an activity that jeopardizes his or her professional judgment, objectivity and independence. Often this activity (such as a private business venture) primarily serves personal interests and can potentially influence the objective exercise of the individual's official duties. |
| Controlled vs. uncontrolled corruption |
Centralised, co-ordinated and disciplined corruption exists in some countries (controlled), while decentralised, disordered and irregular corruption exists in others (uncontrolled). These are ideal types (analytical categories); most countries can be characterised as somewhere in-between. In cases of controlled corruption, the ruling elite have a relatively strict control of the processes and proceeds of corruption. Examples include the former Soviet Union and the 'economic tigers' like South Korea and Taiwan which experienced economic expansion in tandem with high levels of (controlled) corruption. In cases of controlled corruption, businesses will also be able to forecast and estimate the level of corruption, and include it as a measurable expense. Therefore, controlled corruption will not be a major impediment to investments and trade. In countries with uncontrolled corruption, corruption tends to be more common and unpredictable. The rulers are not in command of who will gain how much, or from what. Uncontrolled corruption is generally considered more harmful for a country's economy, although controlled corruption also can have harmful economic effects in the long-term. |
| Corruption |
Corruption is a general concept describing any organized, interdependent system in which part of the system is either not performing duties it was originally intended to, or performing them in an improper way, to the detriment of the system's original purpose. |
| Criminal act under color of law |
Committing any crime while using an office or position as an entrée, such as intentionally arresting the innocent or using police surveillance resources to collect information on a personal rival is an act "under color of law." |
| Embezzlement |
Embezzlement is when a person is entrusted to property and then retains it for his own use: in other words, theft without trespass. This is more common in government corruption as officials are often placed in temporary possession of property or money. A common example would be for a clerk to take money from the cash drawer of a government department. |
| Extortion |
Extortion is the unlawful demand or receipt of property or money through the use of force or threat. A typical example of extortion would be when armed police or military men exact money for passage through a roadblock. Synonyms include blackmail, bloodsucking and extraction. |
| Favouritism |
Favouritism refers to the normal human inclination to prefer acquaintances, friends and family over strangers. It is not always, then, a form of corruption. However, when public (and private sector) officials demonstrate favouritism to unfairly distribute positions and resources, they are guilty of cronyism or nepotism, depending on their relationship with the person who benefits. |
| Fraud |
Fraud is economic crime involving deceit, trickery or false pretences, by which someone gains unlawfully. An actual fraud is motivated by the desire to cause harm by deceiving someone else, while a constructive fraud is a profit made from a relation of trust. Synonyms: Swindle, deceit, double-dealing, cheat, and bluff. |
| Gift giving |
Gift giving is a cultural practice in many societies, by which people offer presents and favours in various circumstances according to local customs. Problems arise when gift giving to and by public officials contradict the principles of impartiality, professionalism, and meritocracy. In exchange for a gift, the official is expected to show preferential treatment to the giver. In those cases, gift-giving can be regarded as bribery. |
| Graft |
Graft (verb) is to obtain money dishonestly by exploiting one's position of power, especially political power [American English]. Graft is understood as political corruption with an element of greediness. Graft (noun) refers to the rewards of corruption: the loot, booty, payoffs, or spoils. |
| Grand corruption |
High level or "grand" corruption takes place at the policy formulation end of politics. It refers not so much to the amount of money involved as to the level at which it occurs - where policies and rules may be unjustly influenced. The kinds of transactions that attract grand corruption are usually large in scale - and therefore involve more money than bureaucratic or "petty" corruption. Grand corruption is sometimes used synonymously with political corruption. |
| Grease money |
Bribes, seen from the angle of the briber and alluding to the drop of oil given to a squeaky wheel of excessive bureaucracy to make the things move smoothly again. Also called a softener, sweetener, gift … |